Black world study- Intellectual Autobiography Essay

Dark world examination Intellectual Autobiography - Essay Example At the point when we find new implications in old things, it implies that our knowledge has created. Our scholarly advancement is being changed by a wide range of elements including individuals, conditions, perceptions and so forth. Some of them have more effect on us than others; still I accept that numerous things around change probably some little piece of us in each snapshot of our lives. Since it is really observation and information what continually make us all the more mentally created. The individual that molded my scholarly improvement presumably more than any other person in my life was my mom. She is never forlorn to me and after I accomplish something that harms me, as a matter of first importance, she asks me what ends have I previously made about the circumstance. This makes me hang on griping for a moment and acknowledge what botches I will never do any longer. In this way my mom has built up a solid capacity of basic thought of each approaching circumstance and data that transpires. Utilizing this capacity encourages me to learn quicker and don't stall out on very similar things experiencing difficulties continuing them. I accept that, as a result of my mom, presently I can work with my self-awareness utilizing basic reasoning and explanatory abilities, so I adapt without any problem. At the point when my companion exhorted me to peruse â€Å"The Shack† by William P. Youthful I was extremely incredulous about the book since I couldn't help suspecting that Christian books like this are intended to connect with me and show me a not too bad living. However, the companion guaranteed me that the book was a â€Å"life-changer† and I expected to peruse it at all. He was directly about the book. Before I read it I hadn’t understood that books really can trigger so much feelings, emotions, and acknowledgment about the life. The content transformed me as an individual and certainly raised my insight. The fact of the matter is that the book doesn’t just show you a totally another perspective on and what is terrible and what is acceptable in this life yet in addition expands your

Barn Burning And Aandp Rite Of Passage

Journeies By Young Men Essay, Research Paper Soul changing experience: Journeies by Young Men The glorification of the state rests in the character of her work powers. Furthermore, character originates from childhood. Hence every male youngster is a test to his seniors. Herbert Hoover Acquiring custom of progress can take topographic point wherever from youth upward into the mid-twentiess or even mid-thirtiess, yet is most typically under-taken in the late pre-adult mature ages. In the short stories An A ; P by John Updike, and Barn Burning by William Faulkner, the components of unyielding cultural frameworks, adult guidelines and approval outlines how a couple of juvenile work powers make their evaluation on society by going contrary to what would be expected so as to pick up their custom of progress. Updike s account takes topographic point in a food advertise shop situated in the focal point of an extremely traditionalist New England people group. Much like the little town, the An A ; P food advertise shop watches resolute cultural frameworks, for example, legitimate shopping manners and suitable gown codification. The ordinary customers, houseslaves and sheep as alluded to by Sammy, shy away from the audaciousness of the juvenile misss whole disregard for appropriate gown codification and typical traffic stream of the passageways. Sammy, on the different manus, is enchanted by the youthful misss and sees nil mistaken with their attire, despite the fact that he comprehends their pick of vesture is non suitable orchestrating to shop arrangement. Moreover, Sammy is delighted and engaged by the misss jokes of resiling around the shop like pinballs. At last, Sammy s expansive perspective on the situation prompts his assurance to help the two his and the misss convictions by emblematically throwing his mandatory attire of petticoat and necktie. Sammy understands that he feels so firmly about the situation that he forfeits his occupation so as to turn out his point and back up his convictions. In making so he requests grown-up guidelines and approval by facing Lengal and saying, I quit, and You didn Ts need to abash them. Lengal, as a more seasoned strong resident and figure of approval, addresses Sammy on his blunder after he counters, It was they who were abashing us. Lengal so thinks that its reasonable to influence other approval figures in Sammy s life by saying, Sammy, you wear t privation to make this to your Mom and Dad with an additional kicker of You ll experience this for a mind-blowing rest. Sammy realizes that the two proclamations from Lengal are genuine ; by the by he feels it important to move out what he has begun. Now Sammy only diverts off from Lengal and walks outside. Faulkner s account takes topographic point in mid twentieth century profound South. The Snopes are compelled to make a trip perpetually due to Abner s refusal to work together with society. In outcome, Abner has secluded his family unit and upholds their dutiful after by appointing thorough subject and anticipates that them should ship out his every need and request. At the main characteristic of incompliance Abner is fast to grant a firm manus of correction to the blaming family unit part. Lamentably, the solitary family part that falls into this class is the 10 twelvemonth old Sarty. Sarty desperately needs to amuse his male parent ; by and by he ends up in a scrape between slam ing what he accepts is ethically right and his detected obligation to be faithful to his male parent. In the test against his male parent for the consumed horse shelter, Sarty is confronted with taking certainty to his male parent or expressing reality as he accepts. Sarty s thoughts during the test are mirrored our foe he thought in that franticness ; ourn! Mine and hisn both! He s my male parent! [ sic ] Abner has clearly arranged his kid before the test. Sarty is battling to change over himself that his male parent s side is correct. In any case, now, he chooses to agree with his male parent despite the fact that he sees an inappropriate in making so. He focuses on me to lie. [ a ] neodymium I will hold to make hit. [ sic ] Sarty would t be able to go against his male parent and face the obvious fury that will follow. After the test and half way through another move, Abner sits down to chat with his kid and areas You were fixing to state them. You would hold let him know. Your pro curing to be a grown-up male. You got the opportunity to larn. You got the opportunity to larn to hotel to your ain blood or you ain t going to hold any blood to cabin to you. As the story advances, Abner is going to transport on one more animal dwellingplace consuming occurrence. He is fixing to go forward his home and requests his wedded lady to keep onto Sarty. Abner is frightful that Sarty will tail him and caution the owners. Sarty, frantic to stop his male parent, passes on his sentiments Ain T you venturing out to try and direct a nigga? He cried. In any event you sent a nigga previously! Abner thinks about restricting him up yet settees for his wedded lady keeping on to him. At long last, Sarty interferences liberated from his female guardians handle and flurries to caution the new casualties. Sarty has in the long run chosen to support what he accepts to be correct and just. After he tells DeSpain he rushes from the house and keeps running off from the scene. He hears a shooting followed by two more ; he quits running long bounty to yell Pap! Pap! He continues running, accidentally, and chooses to run as distant as he can while he wails Father! Fa ther! In the two accounts the juvenile work powers perceive the specific point where they have inevitably made a qualms assurance to remain by their ain convictions and moral intentions, in this way acquiring their single topographic point in the public eye regardless. With Sammy go forthing the An A ; P and thinking back in, he sees Lengal in his old topographic point look intoing through the sheep. His stomach falls as he envisions how troublesome the universe will be to him hereinafter. In like manner, Sarty inevitably tires from running and sits to think about what had just taken topographic point and understands the size of his activities and realizes he can neer return. Sarty ponders the troublesome life in the great beyond in front yet would t be able to help feeling soothed for interfering with the ironss of servitude that were emplaced on him by his male parent. The fragile move from youth to masculinity is attempted and found in all human advancements and different backgrounds. A few entries are of more noteworthy greatness than others. Be that as it may, all transmutations come from a qualms assurance to do a base on what is accepted to be of import and right. In the two outlines the juvenile work powers have defied the unbendable cultural frameworks that encompassed them in this way picking up their ritual of change into masculinity. The solitary czar I acknowledge in this universe is the still voice inside. Mahatma Gandhi

Childs personality and life Essay Example for Free

Childs character and life Essay Andy Murray is one of the more outgoing person tennis players on the tennis court and is known for his regular upheavals of energy and his forceful style of play. In December 2004 he was named the Young Sports Personality of the Year which bolsters my hypothesis that he is an extravert. Additionally Andy Murray doesn't bashful from the media he regularly discusses his game, mentors and even relatives, for example, After a match against Stepanek, he addressed the media saying; I was truly content with the manner in which I played and you could see that by the festivals and my mum creation a simpleton of herself An increasingly withdrawn individual would normally simply discuss there execution and there own response. Tim Henman Tim Henman is one of the more self observer tennis players on the field he is very moderate and calm. His festival (the exchange mark clench hand grip) bolsters that he is moderate however he may have an upheaval of energy it for the most part is quirt and short. Tim Henman gets a great deal of media consideration since he is Englands number one, however he can deal with the media spotlight know when his profession originally began he didn't care for all the media consideration and attempted to keep away from it. That indicated a timid withdrawn trademark. An increasingly outgoing individual would of preferred being main focus and anticipated gathering with the media. Rugby Union The two rugby association players I have decided to explore are Martin Johnson and Johnny Wilkinson. Martin Johnson Martin Johnson is one of the notable and achieved skippers ever. He captained England to the 2003 Six Nations Grand Slam and drove club side Leicester Tigers as they won four back to back Zurich Premiership titles and an European Cup twofold. He has additionally visited with the Lions multiple times. He turned into the main man in history to commander them twice when he drove the Lions on the voyage through Australia in 2001, in the wake of driving the triumphant voyage through South Africa in 1997. On the pitch he is a player who motivates the best out of his players by showing others how its done and yelling consolation and guidelines which shows extravert characteristics. Off the pitch when Martin Johnson converses with the media he doesn't care for discussing himself which is strange for an extravert however when conversing with the media he generally centers around the aggregate which shows he is a major group man. In the meeting after the triumphant world cup last he stated: It was a tremendous exertion by the whole crew of players, mentors and private alcove staff, everyone. On account of the fans they were mind boggling he additionally said I cannot say enough regarding the group What he said to the media fortifies that he is a major group man. This additionally shows an extravert trait of getting a charge out of doing exercises that include others Johnny Wilkinson Johnny Wilkinson is a contemplative rugby player yet the drop objective during additional time that won England the World Cup in 2003 made him the most acclaimed players in global expert rugby. On the field he has gained notoriety for precise kicking and furious handling; off the field he has gained notoriety for rehearsing unendingly and maintaining a strategic distance from exposure. This shows two independent attributes one of doing things alone (preparing) two dodging media consideration (exposure) being timid. Is it true that we are brought into the world with our characters? The appropriate response is well there isnt one there is just speculations climate we are brought into the world with a character. I accept we might be brought into the world with a character issue (mental confusion) however they are the ones that have been deductively demonstrated. I accept our character relies upon natural variables (schools physiology and so forth) and massively how our folks cooperate with us and others. Youngsters gain from duplicating others and they duplicate there guardians more than anyone. Guardians are divine beings according to their youngsters I believe that expression summarizes how much a parent influences a Childs character and life.

Research and Discuss Justification Of Using Terror Tactics - 550 Words

Research and Discuss Justification Of Using Terror Tactics (Term Paper Sample) Content: THE QUEST FOR NATIONAL FREEDOM OR NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE AND THE USE OF TERRORIST TACTICSIntroductionTerrorism and terror tactics denotes the unlawful use or threat of violence especially against the state or the public as a politically motivated means of attack or coercion. The main rationale that drives of terrorists to use violent tactics is largely in an effort to create political change, threaten or induce fear in the public and/or government, raise media attention and/or further their political cause CITATION Bre08 \l 1033 (Bree, 2008).The quest for national freedom as well as national independence has been recorded in various historical accounts from across the world, the North America, Europe, Asia, Latin America and Africa as various peoples sought to relieve themselves of the yoke of colonialism and occupation that brought about domination, humiliation, subjugation among other kinds of ations as Malcom X would refer to them in his famous By Any Means Necess ary speech.In order to realize this dream or aspiration of national freedom and national independence, these people have been forced to resort to a number of means that are aimed at realizing this desired end. Among the methods that have been employed include non-violence methods such as the Satyagraha method employed in the 1930s and 1940s as India, led by Mohandas Mahatma Gandhi, sought to relieve herself of the colonial yoke of British rule.During the American civil rights movement, this method was also employed as blacks who had long been inhumanely treated with discrimination, segregation, lynching and being denied rights sought to fight for their freedom using boycotts, sit-ins, bus rides, demonstrations, court cases among other methods.However, it is important to note that others have used to terrorist tactics in order to acquire national freedom and national independence. These methods have divided opinion both in and outside academic circles as some see the means as justifi ed as long as they seek to achieve the desired noble ends. Others have seen the ends as important just like the means and thus attack these terror tactics as unjustified. To this end therefore, it is nearly impossible to draw a consensus amongst scholars. Against this backdrop, this paper seeks to examine one of the questions that has dogged the academy for eons as posed by scholars such as Gus Martin, i.e., whether the quest for national freedom or national independence justifies the use of terrorist tactics CITATION Mar10 \l 1033 (Martin, 2010). The paper argues that the usage of terror is justifiable but under certain conditions.WHEN THE QUEST FOR NATIONAL FREEDOM OR INDEPENDENCE JUSTIFIES THE USE OF TERRORIST TACTICSThere are a number of grounds that justify the usage of terror as a tactic in the quest for national freedom and/or national independence. First, terror may be justified where the definition of terrorism is a political one which doesnt differentiate between revoluti onary violence and terrorism. According to Melayna Lamb, the concept of terrorism and its connotation and denotation has been subject to political distortion to suit the power arithmetic of the day. While the quest fro freedom or independence will not necessarily lead to the use of terrorism, empirically speaking, most freedom and independence movements at some point have engaged in some kind of terroristic activity. However, in one instance, when it suits the world overlords or interests of the West, it is normally referred to as freedom movement and whole it is against the interests of the West, it is referred to as terrorism CITATION Lam10 \l 1033 (Lamb, 2010).A good example is the Mau Mau movement in Kenya which was labeled terrorist despite the fact that it was using terrorist attacks to marginal levels as compared to the terrorism being used by the then colonial government against Mau Mau and against the Kikuyus who were perceived as the main antagonists CITATION Elk05 \l 103 3 \m And11 (Elkins, 2005; Anderson, 2011). Another example is during the Cold War whereby there was widespread Western support and engagement with terrorism, as it was seen to serve a political purpose. The over-riding fear of the spread of communism was seen to legitimize the use of terrorism in pursuit of capitalism, democracy and freedom. Of course the Western policy-makers would never describe their tactics as constituting a form of terrorism CITATION Lam10 \l 1033 (Lamb, 2010).In Europe, the Nazi occupiers characterized the work of the resistance movements such as the French, Czech, and Polish as terrorism. For the resistance movements, they were not terrorists but freedom fighters and their clandestine work of sabotage and ambush-destroying bridges and railroads and assassinating German officials as well as their local collaborators-was a wholly justifiable tactic of a war of national liberation. This same justification was used by a series of anti-colonial movements across the world as the wave of independence swept across the world. The Viet Minh were against French rule in Vietnam and they used wartime tactics of resistance to attack the French with the classic weapons of terrorism, raiding remote plantations to kill French overseers, random shootings and bombs in crowded cafes, all designed to destroy the morale of the French civilians. These tactics were also used against the British in Palestine by Israeli freedom fighters where they blew up civilians in hotels, assassinated British troops, and ambushed British patrols, all in the name of the national liberation of Israel CITATION Wal01 \l 1033 (Walker, 2001).Another justification for the use of terrorism in the quest for national independence and national freedom is that it leads to a noble end which will lead to the betterment of many. Under this argument, it leads to the highest pleasure to the highest number of people thus is justifiable under the utilitarian thinking of Jeremy Bentham CITAT ION Mil03 \l 1033 (Mill, Bentham, Troyer, 2003). Under such conditions, terrorism is justified. This is because in the face of an enemy who is insurmountable through conventional means, the resort to terrorism which assures freedom and independence since the realization of the same ably shows that the ends did justify the means CITATION Lam10 \l 1033 (Lamb, 2010).Another justification for terrorism is that it is justifiable from a contractarian viewpoint in that only through embracing terrorism in a given where a people are fighting for their national independence and national freedom. According to Hobbes, fear is a characteristic of a people living in a state of nature which must be shed if they are to live in a community of civilization. Since a people who live under domination are subjected to fear such in the case of the colonial state, they must expunge this continual fear CITATION Hob11 \l 1033 (Hobbes, 2011).Continual fear, Hobbes further postulates, is the unrelenting fe ar of imminent violent death, like the one that characterized colonial Kenya especially in Central Kenya CITATION Elk05 \l 1033 \m And11 (Elkins, 2005; Anderson, 2011), is unspeakably awful. It is, Hobbes opines, worse than ignorance. A life of continual fear is scarcely a life at all. Someone who is in the grip of chronic terror is in a state of constant distress as he has his heart all the day gnawed on by fear of death, poverty, or other calamity and has no repose, nor pause of his anxiety, but in sleep. This condition must be expunged by all means where possible and if terrorism is the means, then so be it CITATION Hob11 \l 1033 (Hobbes, 2011).Critics of terrorist tactics in liberation movements striving to achieve national independence and national freedom often point out, borrowing from Max Webers philosophy, that the state has a monopoly on violence, which therefore legitimates the use of it, and that any other group using violence is illegitimate. However, those who suppo rt the use of terrorism by resistance movements counter-argue that if this were true, then, Nelson Mandela should have been universally condemned as nothing more than a terrorist and murderer, something the Thatcher government, a critical ally of the apartheid regimes of South Africa, liked to call him. This is not a serious position to hold, Brian Brivati argues, since alternatively, we might say that the violence employed by all states, at least if they are Western democracies, is illegitimate CITATION Bri09 \l 1033 (Brivati, 2009).Brivati further argues that the many cases of the necessity of war, September 1939 where Nazi Germany invaded Poland, for example, invalidate this position. To this end, he argues, violence is an ethically acceptable extension of the struggle. While we may not reach an objective basis for the support of the armed struggle in one context as against another, Brivati argues, we can at least suggest principles that are reasonable and then defend those prin ciples. He finds fault in the forced position to accept that the use of violence against soft targets is terrorism in whatever cause it is employed arguing that there is a difference in that we might support some causes and not others because we see them as morally virtuous or vicious CITATION Bri09 \l 1033 (Brivati, 2009).To this end therefore, Brivati argues that the use of violence, whether by states or other groups, should be based on the same argument as that used to justify a declaration of war, the just war theory. He dichotomizes his distinction as one not based on the difference between freedom fighter and terrorist but between murderer and terrorist whereby the former simply kills nihilistically because they are killing in a cause that the common do not believe in, and the latter using violence as part of an achievable and just political project with which the common agree CITATION Bri09 \l 10...

Sustainable Competitive Advantage Based On Product Alone Free Essay Example, 4750 words

Most companies find it impossible to create any kind of sustainable competitive advantage based on product alone as successful companies sought and found a precise understanding of how it could create a customer-centred competitive advantage. Along with the changing business world, customers change as well, becoming more demanding and knowledgeable than before. In this light, reliance on the internal resources of the organization will not do if environmental considerations of the company are not likewise taken into account. These include the significant market characteristics that directly and indirectly influence and dictate the strategic business implementation and sound decision-making from the options available. The forecast of subsequent political, economic, and social implications that change will result to also needs to be identified and enumerated to ensure the success and development of the organization as well as the welfare of the general public. The best suppliers contin uously update and upgrade their service deliveries in order to answer the demands of their customers. Customers have the ever-increasing demand on getting their hands into the products which can lead to change in supplier if expectations are not met. We will write a custom essay sample on Sustainable Competitive Advantage Based On Product Alone or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page

The American Revolution A Significant Part Of American...

The American Revolution is a very significant part of American History. It is more than just a course for credit. After all, it is the reason behind the birth of this great nation. The American Revolution took place between 1765 and 1783 during which the colonists in the thirteen American colonies rejected the British monarchy and aristocracy, overthrew the authority of Great Britain and founded the the United States of America. By 1763 the crisis had begun to develop. John Adams was right when he wrote; â€Å"The revolution was in the minds of the people, and the union of of the colonies, before hostilities commenced. The revolution and union were gradually forming from the years 1760 to 1776.† The minds of the people were storehouses not only of a list of grievances but of democratic sentiments and ideas stored during the many years of resistance to royal and clerical absolutism. Following the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763 ending the French and Indian war, there was an immediate uprising of American Indian tribes living in the Great Lakes regions.George Grenville, named Primed Minister in 1763, he discovered in the colonies shockingly dishonest practces; smuggling in defiance of the acts of navagation; disregard of British low in general; and inefficient, wasteful custom collection. He returned to England determined to remedy these conditions. The British Monarchy decided to address the pro blem. They decided to develop legislations that sought to subdue theShow MoreRelatedThe American Revolution Was A Significant Part Of American History1524 Words   |  7 PagesThe American Revolution was a significant part of American History. It marked the first time in history that people fought for their independence. Even though there were not as many deaths in this war compared to the wars that would come in later years, it was still a great part of history and not only for America, but other countries as well. With the absence of the American Revolution, the United States would not be where it is today. Military strategies that were developed in key battles throughoutRead MoreWhat Factors During The Colonial Period Essay1636 Words   |  7 Pagescolonial period led to American colonists declaring independence from the British Empire? Be sure to discuss the economic, political, and cultural aspects of the American Revolution. PROVISIONAL HYPOTHESIS: The structure of America revolution to address a various issue, which has great impact on America It, was the procedure where the thirteen colonies of North America became independent of Great Britain also then formed a new integrated government. The major reasons of America revolution are cultural, economicRead More Gordon Wood’s Radicalism of the American Revolution Essay1493 Words   |  6 PagesGordon Wood’s Radicalism of the American Revolution is a book that extensively covers the origin and ideas preceding the American Revolution. Wood’s account of the Revolution goes beyond the history and timeline of the war and offers a new encompassing look inside the social ideology and economic forces of the war. Wood explains in his book that America went through a two-stage progression to break away from the Monarchical rule of the English. He believes the pioneering revolutionaries were rootedRead MoreComparing the French Revolution and the American Revolution Essay example857 Words   |  4 Pages The French and American revolutions are both very significant in the world’s history. 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Ha rriet Beecher Stowe contended in her overview to Nell’s Colored Patriots of the American Revolution, the work gave way to the possible to â€Å"‘give new self-respect and confidence to the race†¦And their white brothers in reading may remember, that generosity, disinterested courage and bravery, are of no particular race and complexion, and that the image of the HeavenlyRead MoreThe Historical Narrative Of The Years And Events Surrounding1461 Words   |  6 Pagessurrounding the American Revolution has increasingly become simplified. What was once characterized in the 19th century as a complex historiography of betrayal and loyalty, friends and enemies, and a non-violent civil war within a revolution, evolved into a 21st century brief summation of a few key people, taxes, and battles. 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Thomas Paine is most notably recognized for his pamphlet, Common Sense, which he wrote during the early stages of the American Revolution as a call to the colonists to join together and support the fight for independence. Unfortunately, besides this pamphlet, Paine is often unknown, forgotten, and not someone who comes to mind immediately when one thinks of the original founding fathers of American Democracy. When Thomas

Textbook Civil Liberties And Human Rights â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Textbook Civil Liberties And Human Rights? Answer: Introducation The law of torts constitutes a wrongful action which has been committed against an individual (which may include an artificial legal person) instead of a state. The fundamental principle of the law of tort is that every citizen has certain liberties, rights and interest which have to be provided protection through the legal principles. In case of tort law the interest is given protection through the concept of damages provided by the courts against any infringement of the civil rights in relation to an individual. In addition through the issue of an injunction (an order by the court to refrain a person from indulging a particular act) the court prevents the person from committing an act. The law of tort is a very bread ranging subject and one of the most complex in relation to all legal spheres in relation to laying down all of its embracing principles. As provided by Abraham and Kenneth (2017) a tort may be defined as a civil wrong which makes an aggrieved party to be entitled to co mpensation in from of damages[1]. However the paper provides an argument that the law of tort is much about civil liberties as it is often misunderstood. The purpose of the paper is to discuss the objectives of tort law as it applies to the legal world along with make the audiences know that the law is mostly intends to provide civil liberties to the citizens. In order to discuss about the objectives of tort law the various areas in which the provisions of the law apply have to be analyzed. The law of tort is divided into various areas such as Negligence, Nuisance and defamation. As defined by Christopher (2017) the tort of negligence is a set of legal principles which are imposed so that a wrongdoer can be punished for his action[2]. As provided by Frank (2016) negligence is the area of law which has been enacted to ensure that a person whose rights have been violated is duly compensated by the wrongdoer in relation to the loss caused by him because of the wrongdoer[3]. However a closer analysis of tort of negligence in the light of the theory of deterrence as provided by Lee, David and McCrary (2017), which evidently provide the result that the law of negligence has been enacted so that the person may be careful towards his action which might foreseeably cause injury to another[4]. The assertion can be further strengthened and supported through the analysis of the elements which are required to establish a claim of negligence. The first element which is necessary to establish the tort off negligence is the duty of care. As provided by one of the most talked about case Donoghue v Stevenson[5] a person owes another a duty to care for, even if there is no legal relationship between them which would create an obligation, if a person can foresee that his action can harm the other as a reasonable person would have done. According to Richard (2016) civil liberties are the position of being imposed with laws which have been brought into existence for the common good of the community, with special reference to the freedom of speech and action[6]. Murray, Nancy, and Wunsch (2016) defines civil liberties as the right of a person to be imposed with legal obligations which are established only for the good of the community[7]. As highlighted by Neil (2016) civil liberties can have a very broad definition which may vary from society to society by the basic principles of civil liberty is that law should ensure that a person is able to exercise properly his right to actions and speech. [8]The concept of the duty of care therefore itself establishes civil liberties not only to the aggrieved party but also to any potential wrongdoer. A person is not prevented according to the duty of care to exercises his civil liberties but is only directed to continue his actions in such a way which would not harm another per son. In the same way civil liberties are provided to a person to safely carry on his activities with the assumption that other would not carry out an act which may harm him. The second essential in relation to the tort of negligence arises when the duty of care is violated. In the famous case Vaughan v Menlove[9] the court provided one of the most commonly used test for the purpose of identifying whether a existing duty to care for has not been complied with, known as the objective test. The principles of the famous test imply that a reasonable person (Hypothetical) has to be placed in the same situation where the alleged wrongdoer was while the said negligence was committed and then see whether the reasonable person would have taken a more cautious approach towards the incident to avoid the harm caused. As provided by Amanda (2015) a duty of care and the harm being caused cannot establish negligence unless it is provided that the wrongdoer acted in an unreasonable manner[10]. Therefore it can be provided that the concept does not prohibit any civil liberty but only ask a person to act in a way which is reasonable and acceptable to the society. However a s per the provisions of the Civil Liability Act of the different states in Australia a duty is breach on not is analyzed in the light of the significance of the harm. This provision may to a little extent can be used by the critics to say that the law of tort imposes obligation to be extra cautious and thus restrict civil liberties. However if the provisions are interpreted in the light of the social utility provision of the Act it can be stated clearly that a person needs to be extra cautious in relation to only those activities which are of high utility to the society. In addition the actions of a professional as provided through the case of Boyd v. Ackley[11] are compared to a reasonable professional and not a normal person. This is because it is common sense to believe that a professional would have more knowledge as compared to a reasonable person and thus is expected to work in an increased proficient manner. Moreover the defenses which have been provided through the tort of n egligence such as Contributory negligence, intoxication and failing to take precautions against obvious risks also help a defendant to be aware that merely because they have been a little negligent they cannot be held accountable for the all the loss which have been suffered by the plaintiff which may because of his own actions. Thus it can be stated evidently that provisions which are used to analyze the breach of duty of care also do not intervene with any civil liberties of a person. Damages which are provided in the case of negligence are only to compensate the loss which has been suffered by a party and not to punish a person for being negligent as it is done in other for m of law such as corporation law and criminal law trough penalties. Defamation is another area of tort law which deals with the right to speech of a person. It is often misunderstood to have imposed unwanted restriction on the liberty to speak. As defined by Richard et al. (2015) is a catch all term in relation to any statement which hurts the reputation of another person[12]. The concept is based on the fact that each person in the society has the right to maintain his reputation rather than imposing a restriction on another person to talk in relation to others. The tort of defamation purport to protect the reputation of an individual in the society from any wrongful act depicted to a group or a community as whole by another person[13]. It does not prevent a person to carry out his speech in relation to another personally. Defamation can take place in two forms one is written defamation known as Libel and the other is spoken defamation which is known as slander[14]. The tort of defamation in order to provide civil liberties to the citizens contains significant defense which ensure that the right to speech of a person is not restricted and in addition the right is not used to cause harm to another person. The law of defamation in Australia is largely based on the English law of defamation. However there are certain limitations which have been added through statues along with the commonwealth constitution which limits the power of the government in relation to political speeches as established through the famous case of Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation[15] This step by the legislature clearly indicates that the intention of the law of torts as often misunderstood is to provide civil liberties. Even the government itself is not allowed to use the law to the detriment of other. The defenses in relation to defamation provide that defamations cannot be established if the statement made is true, in good faith with reasonable belief to be true, an opinion, mere vulgar abuse, comment for public interest and innocent dissemin ation. however in order to ensure that the defenses which have been provided in relation to defamation are misused in order to cause harm to another person the law has clearly stated to apply the principles of civil liberties that the defenses are not applicable if an element of malice is found in the actions of the defendant. Nuisance is also a common law tort which deals with annoyance, offence, injury or trouble in relation to a property of a person[16]. A nuisance can be both private and public. As provided by Neyers (2017) nuisance is an unwanted act or omission in relation to discharging a legal duty which may cause inconvenience to others towards exercising rights which are common to all[17]. Traditionally the term nuisance is used in three ways. Firstly to describe a condition or activity that is annoying or harmful to others such as a rubbish heap, an indecent conduct or a smoking chimney. Secondly to describe the injury which result out of the conditions as discussed. Thirdly to provide and describe a legal liability which arises from the above discussion. However the actions in nuisance can only arise out of activities which take place in the property of the wrongdoer. Again in the same way as compared to that of defamation and negligence, nuisance also operates to promote civil liberties as opp osed to restricting the right of an individual. [18]At common law and equity every person has the right to enjoy their property in a peaceful manner, nuisance ensures that such right is provided to the individuals in accordance to civil liberties by restricting the right of others only to such extent which is necessary to prevent injury or harm to others. Civil liberties are one of the fundamental needs of the modern day society. They are a kind of personal freedom which should not be curtailed under any circumstances by the legislature. However civil liberties must not be taken as a right which allows for causing harm to another. From the above discussed analysis it can be evidently stated that the primary objective to tort law is very much about civil liberties. This is because all the major areas of tort law aim to protect the rights of citizens rather than focusing on imposing restrictions. The elements for such areas have been framed in such a manner which ensures that not only the rights of individuals are protected but also no additional restrictions are imposed on other individuals in relation to such rights. The law of torts thus mostly purports to provide and protect right rather than taking them away or restricting them. References Abraham, Kenneth. The forms and functions of tort law. West Academic, 2017. Barendt, Eric. "Defamation Law." (2017): 1-5. Cavico, Frank J., et al. "The Tort of Negligence in Employment Hiring, Supervision, and Retention." American Journal of Business and Society 1.4 (2016): 205-222. Donoghue v Stevenson 1932 AC 522 Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) HCA 25. Lee, David S., and Justin McCrary. "The deterrence effect of prison: Dynamic theory and evidence." Regression Discontinuity Designs: Theory and Applications. Emerald Publishing Limited, 2017. 73-146. Lyons, Amanda. "Duty of care." Good Practice 12 (2015): 24. MacCallum, Walter. "Defamation actions and social media: Where are the risks?." Governance Directions 67.11 (2015): 677. Murray, Nancy, and Sarah Wunsch. "Civil Liberties in Times of Crisis: Lessons from History." Massachusetts Law Review 2015 (2016): 2014. Neyers, J. W., and Andrew Botterell. "Tate Lyle: Pure Economic Loss and the Modern Tort of Public Nuisance." Alta. L. Rev. 53 (2015): 1031.Neyers, J. W. "RECONCEPTUALISING THE TORT OF PUBLIC NUISANCE." The Cambridge Law Journal 76.1 (2017): 87-115. Parkes, Richard, et al. Gatley on libel and slander. Sweet Maxwell, 2015. Richards, Neil. Intellectual privacy: Rethinking civil liberties in the digital age. Oxford University Press, USA, 2015. Robinette, Christopher, et al. "JOuRNal Of TORT law." (2017). Stone, Richard. Textbook on civil liberties and human rights. Oxford University Press, USA, 2014. Swisher, Peter N. "Virginia Practice Series: Tort and Personal Injury Law." (2015). Vaughan v Menlove (1837) 3 Bing. N.C. 467

Multinational Company Essay Example

Multinational Company Essay According to knowledge and network-based theories of multinational companies (MNCs), the main source of MNC competitive advantage is the creation and transfer of knowledge within the MNC system. The processes of knowledge creation and knowledge transfer are extensively investigated in the present literature.However, there are issues that are still underdeveloped, such as control and organizational mechanisms as a micro foundation of modern MNC theories. This paper is aimed at presenting an overview of the modern theoretical approaches of MNC competitive advantages from the managerial point of view. The applicability of these concepts is further considered in the case of MNC affiliates doing their business in transition economies in order to provide guidelines for future empirical research.Key words: multinational companies, knowledge-based theory, network-based theory, transition economies. INTRODUCTION M 1 2 NCs are recognized as the main actors of e international business, internat ional business financing and global economies. According to Ghoshal and Bartlett, MNC is a firm that has substantial direct investment in foreign countries that it actively manages. 2 The value of their sales in host countries overpasses the value of trade (imports and exports) in today’s world economy.Multinational companies attracted scientific and public attention Dr Biljana Pesalj, Assistant, Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade, E-mail address: biljana. [emailprotected] com Ghoshal Sumantra and Bartlett A. Christopher, â€Å"The Multinational Corporation as an Interorganizational Networkâ€Å", Academy of Management Review, 15, 4, 1990, 603–625, p. 603. 237 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) rom the moment of their appearance, and especially from the beginning of their intensive growth (during the 1960s). There are many interesting and important issues concerning MNC that have been elaborated i n the literature such as motives of internationalization, forms and strategies of internationalization, effects on host and home countries, political aspects of MNC activities, emerging forms of international business financings, corporate social responsibility of MNC, relationship between the headquarters and MNC affiliates, etc.However, many questions have remain unanswered, such as particular mechanisms used to coordinate MNC’s activities, particularities of MNC affiliates doing their business in transition economies, etc. Modern theories of MNC, such as knowledge-based and network-based theories, indicate that in comparison to national3 companies4 the ability to create and transfer knowledge internally is one of the main competitive advantages of MNCs. Drawing upon knowledge-based and network–based theoretical views MNC is considered â€Å"repository of knowledge and a superior way of organizing knowledge transfer across MNC units†. In the largest number of studies, (theoretical and empirical) MNC is considered a differentiated network where knowledge is created in various parts of MNC and then internally transferred to different interrelated units. 6 The creation of innovation in MNC is no longer focused on the home country, but could be dispersed throughout the MNC system. There are authors which point out that innovative activities of foreign subsidiaries are a crucial part of innovative performance of MNC as a whole. 7 Subsidiary’s local business networks (i. . 3 4 We use the term â€Å"national companies† to denote those that organize their production activities in a sole country in contrast to multinational companies. See: Minbaeva D, Pedersen T, Bjorkman I, Fey CF, Park HJ, â€Å"MNC knowledge transfer, subsidiary absorptive capacity, and HRM†, Journal of Internation Business Studies, 34, 2003, pp. 586–599; Andersson Ulf, Forsgren Mats and Holm Ulf, â€Å"Subsidiary Embeddedness and Competence Develo pment in MNCs – A Multi – level Analysisâ€Å" Organization Studies, 22, 6, 2001, pp. 013–1034; Kogut Bruce and Zander Udo, â€Å"Knowledge of the firm and the evolutionary theory of the multinational corporation†, Journal of International Business Studies, Fourth Quarter, 1993, pp. 625–645. Kogut Bruce and Zander Udo, ibid. , p. 625. See: Andersson Ulf, Forsgren Mats and Holm Ulf, â€Å"Balancing subsidiary influence in the federative MNC: a business network view†, Journal of International Business Studies, 38, 2007, pp. 802–818; Hedlung G. , â€Å"The Hypermodern MNC – A Heterarchy? â€Å", Human Resource Management, 25, 1986, pp. –35 Yamin Mo and Otto Juliet, â€Å"Patterns of knowledge flows and MNC innovative performance†, Journal of International Management, 10, 2004, pp. 239–258. 5 6 7 238 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) involving sup pliers, customers and competitors) are often a critical source of innovation and capability development for the subsidiary. 8 In the paper, we first present the literature review on the theory of international business and theory of MNC with the focus on the modern approaches such acknowledge-based theory, network-based theory and social capital theory.Then we consider the applicability of these modern views of MNC as a possible theoretical background for the empirical research on MNC in transition economies. Namely, transition economies suffer from many distortions in comparison to developed ones and are specific in many aspects; therefore, they may require modified theoretical approaches to the conceptualization of MNC. We discuss the results of the most recent empirical studies conducted in some of the transition economies. The bjective of this analysis is to facilitate and improve the process of establishing hypotheses and conducting future empirical research on different aspect s of MNC in transition economies. The empirical results are expected to reflect at some point the modification or alternation of the MNC theoretical conceptualization, doing business in transition economies. DUNNING’S ECLECTIC PARADIGM Until the late 1980s, the dominant accepted theory of FDI was Dunning’s eclectic paradigm (OLI theory).Within the scope of this theory, Dunning proposed three main determinants of international activity of the firm and they are as follows: ownership, location and internalization (OLI triad). According to this traditional approach to the internationalization processes and MNC, firms are motivated to internationalize their business in order to exploit their ownership or firm specific advantages. 9 Traditional approaches consider that there is just one-way direction of knowledge transfer and learning – from headquarters to foreign subsidiaries.Market imperfections and high transaction costs are seen as the main reasons why MNCs prefe r transfer of knowledge-based assets using FDI (within the MNC system) to using market mechanisms. 8 Tsai Hsin-Ju and Yamin Mo, â€Å"Organizational influences on innovation transfer in multinational corporations†, Workshop on knowledge flows, School of Business and Management, Queen Mary, University of London, 2007, Internet: http://www. qmul. ac. uk /~bsw019/tsai 16/1/2008. Dunning H. John, Theories and Paradigms of International Business Activity, The Selected Essays of John H.Dunning, Volume I, Edward Elgar, 2002. 9 239 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) However, as Dunning has noticed in his later work, OLI triad needed to be supplemented over time because, apart from the mentioned determinants of international activity of firms, MNCs are increasingly investing abroad in order to protect or augment their core competences. Therefore, the existing MNC theory was not powerful enough to offer a comprehensive interp retation of the actual international business activities.During the 1980s, as a response to criticism, Dunning introduced dynamic variables connected with the strategy of the firm. In his papers, at the beginning of 2000, Dunning concluded that there was the growing importance of relational assets (productive inter-firm and intra-firm relationships that determined the amount and structure of international business) that largely influenced OLI triad of variables of international business. TRANSITION FROM TRADITIONAL TO MODERN VIEWS OF MNC A change in the academic and research focus in dealing with MNC could be noticed at the end of the 1980s.In the period before the 1980s, the research in the field the MNC was mostly related to the analysis of the relationship between headquarters and affiliates and the analysis of the decisions to invest abroad as could be noticed in the Dunning’s work. But then, the focus moved to the activities of coordination in managing the network of for eign affiliates and to the analysis of competitive advantages resulting from the economy of scope of that kind of network. This change of focus called for a new theoretical, conceptual and methodological background.The research in the field of international business and MNC has been very fruitful during the past two decades and has thrown light upon many aspects of the nature, strategy and organization of the multinational enterprise. The change in the theoretical approach was evident in the conceptualization of the MNC organizational model. Regarding the model of MNC there are generally two main schools of thought. The first (traditional) line of thought used a model of the home-based MNC. 0 The implication of this view of organization and management of MNC is that MNC makes a clear distinction between core and peripheral activities for the improvement of competitive advantages on a global scale. Core activities are always kept in the home country, while only peripheral activities are allocated to affiliates. The second 10 Solvell Orjan and Zander Ivo, â€Å"Organization of the Dynamic Multinational Enterprise, the Home–Based and Heterarchial MNC†, International Studies of Management and Organization, 25,1-2, 1995, pp. 17–38. 240 Pesalj B. Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) (new, modern) line of thought includes several models of MNC, such as the geocentric firm,11 the diversified MNC,12 the inter-organizational network13 and the heterarchical MNC. 14 Without going into details and differences between these organizational models, we note that all these models have in common the suggestion that there are complex organizational structures and management processes in MNC aimed at upgrading competitive advantages by combining â€Å"global integration† and â€Å"local differentiation† of MNC.Since we consider this second stream more acceptable and more present in the modern literat ure, we focus on the concept of MNC as a differentiated interorganizational network (transnational solution given by Bartlett and Ghoshal15) as one of the approaches within this strand. The concept of MNC as a differentiated inter-organizational network means that MNC cannot be regarded as a uniform organization, but as a system of interrelated and interconnected organizational parts that are very different.The organizational parts of MNC differ greatly in their characteristics as well as in their contribution and role in the development of the competitive advantages of MNC as a whole. We do not consider the approach of Bartlett and Ghoshal as superior in comparison to, for example, the model of Hedlund or others, but we choose this approach because it has initiated a number of empirical studies that have considerably contributed to the understanding of sources of MNC’s competitive advantages.The most recent developments in theories of the firm view a firm as a â€Å"knowled ge-creating entity† and argue that knowledge and the capability to create and use are the most important sources of a firm’s sustainable competitive advantage. 16 As many authors point out, there has been a 11 12 13 14 15 16 Perlmutter V. Howard, â€Å"The Tortuous Evolution of the Multinational Corporation†, Columbia Journal of World Business, January – February, 1969, pp. 9–18. Prahalad C. K. , â€Å"Strategic Choices in Diversified MNCs†, Harvard Business Review, July – August, 1976.Bartlett Christopher and Ghoshal Sumantra, Managing across borders: The transnational solution. , Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA, 1989. Hedlund G. , â€Å"The Hypermodern MNC – A Heterarchy? â€Å", Human Resource Management, 25, 1986, pp. 9–35. Bartlett Christopher and Ghoshal Sumantra, Managing across borders: The transnational solution. , loc. cit. Nonaka Ikujiro, Toyama Ryoko and Nagata Akiya, â€Å"A Firm as a Knowledge-c reating Entity: A New Perspective on the Theory of the Firm†, Industrial and Corporate Change, 9, 1, 2000, pp. 1–20. 241 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 37–259) revolutionary transition from the conceptual model of MNC, as a market failure approach of internalization theory and transaction costs theory, to knowledge–based theories of the firm. The new perspective of MNC is based on the application of knowledge and network theories. The knowledge-based theory of MNC mainly deals with the characteristics of knowledge, transfer of knowledge and determinants of these processes. Within the knowledge-based theory, there is a large body of literature that deals with RD units that are seen as the main sources of the knowledge creation. 7 On the other side, the network theory and particularly the embeddedness concept give some more evidence on the other MNC source of knowledge – knowledge created and assimilate d in the close cooperation with local partnering organizations. These two approaches will be presented in the following text. THE NETWORK-BASED THEORY OF MNC MNC’s affiliates are the main sources of competitive advantages of MNC because they build deep and long-term relationships with local business partners as well as with other units of the MNC system. Due to these close relationships, new knowledge could be created.The main characteristic of this knowledge is that it is tacit – embedded in a specific context. Embeddedness could be defined as a set of close relationships with partner organizations in the business network and it relates to the intensity of information exchange and to the level of adjustments made between business partners. The term â€Å"embeddedness† has its origin in the classification of different types of knowledge systematized by Lam. 18 This author used tacit – explicit and individual – collective dimensions to identify the following four types of knowledge: embrained (individual-explicit), embodied (individualtacit), encoded collective-explicit) and embedded (collective-tacit). Embedded knowledge is tacit and context-specific (collective) ingrained in inter-dependent routines, technologies and procedures as well as in individuals who share common experiences and values. Such characteristics raise higher ambiguity and complexity barriers to transferability of this type of knowledge. 17 18 Further analysis in this field showed that RD units have very important roles in the MNC system. Lam Alice, â€Å"Tacit knowledge, organizational learning and societal institutions: an integrated framework†, Organizational Studies, 21, 2000, pp. 87-513. 242 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) The concept of affiliate embeddedness in the business network of relationships with stakeholders is opposed to that of traditional business contact, which a firm makes with its suppliers and consumers and that ends with the exchange. Some relationships in the business network of the affiliate are developed over time, so they evolve from traditional relations to a high level of cooperation and integration. 9 Therefore, the more the affiliate is dependent on its partners in carrying out its business activities and the more it is adjusted to them, the more it is embedded in the business network. If partner organizations are also dependent on the affiliate and adjusted to it, it is more possible that the affiliate embeddedness will be stimulated, because the interdependence leads to the creation of long-term cooperation. So, the higher the interdependence between an affiliate and its partners, the more embedded the affiliate will be in the business network. 0 Further research based on the application of the embeddedness concept clearly indicates that relationships in the network have an influence on affiliate performance. 21 Researchers in this field hypothesize and empirically prove that the closer the business cooperation of the affiliate with partner organizations the easier it is for the affiliate to assimilate new knowledge that comes from outside the MNC system. Consequently, the affiliate is able to innovate and improve its performance in the local market (market performance).The empirical research has also found that the ability of MNC affiliates to assimilate new knowledge from the local business environment could be a crucial source of competitive advantage for MNC as a whole and not just a source of market performance of an affiliate. 22 The empirical research 19 Andersson Ulf, Forsgren Mats, Pedersen Torben, â€Å"Subsidiary performance in multinational corporations: the importance of technology embeddednessâ€Å", International Business Review, 10, 2001, pp. 3–23. Andersson Ulf and Forsgren Mats, â€Å"Subsidiary Embeddedness and Control in the MNCâ€Å", International Business Review, 5, 5, 1996, p p. 87–508. Andersson Ulf and Forsgren Mats, â€Å"Subsidiary Embeddedness and Control in the MNCâ€Å", ibid; Andersson Ulf, Forsgren Mats, Pedersen Torben, â€Å"Subsidiary performance in multinational corporations: the importance of technology embeddednessâ€Å", loc. cit. See: Ghoshal Sumantra and Bartlett A. Christopher, â€Å"The Multinational Corporation as an Interorganizational Networkâ€Å", Academy of Management Review, 15, 4, 1990, pp. 603–625; Gupta Anil and Govindarajan Vijau, â€Å"Knowledge flows and the structure of control within multinational corporationsâ€Å", Academy of Management Review, 16, 4, 1991, pp. 68–792; Dunning John and Lundan Sarianna, â€Å"The Geographical Sources of Competitiveness of Multinational Enterprises: an econometric analysisâ€Å", International Business Review, 7, 1998, pp. 115–133. 20 21 22 243 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) dealing sp ecifically with technological knowledge has confirmed the hypothesis that a higher level of external technological affiliate embeddedness is correlated with higher importance of that affiliate for the development of MNC as a system. 23 Authors Andersson et al. 4 focused on the role and performance effect of the subsidiary’s embeddedness. This study found that external subsidiary embeddedness had a positive impact on the development of products (market performances) and the processes in MNC (performances of MNC as a whole through transfer of knowledge). The results of the Andersson et al. ’s study also indicate that there might be a negative relationship between external embeddedness and influence (power) of the subsidiary inside MNC. These results indicate the paradoxical effect of embeddedness.Namely, embeddedness is a way to provide some new competences for the subsidiary and increase its performance and performance of other units, but on the other hand, it could lea d to a reduced interest in contributing to the MNC’s overall performance. These remarks point out that there are some conflicting forces inherent in the federative MNC: 1) gravitation of units, based on the mutual interest in business within the same organization and 2) centrifugal forces as a result of subsidiaries’ embeddedness in the unique local business contexts.This issue will be further discussed in the following segment within the context of knowledge transfer. THE KNOWLEDGE-BASED THEORY OF MNC Knowledge-based theory of MNC views these companies as â€Å"social communities that specialize in the creation and internal transfer of knowledge†. 25 This approach is used by Kogut and Zander26 to make an evolution of the theory of MNC suggesting that MNCs have superior efficiency in knowledge transfer across borders than through external market 23 24 Andersson Ulf, Forsgren Mats and Holm Ulf, â€Å"Subsidiary Embeddedness and Competence Development in MNCs â⠂¬â€œ A Multi – level Analysisâ€Å", loc. it. Andersson Ulf, Forsgren Mats and Holm Ulf, â€Å"Balancing subsidiary influence in the federative MNC: a business network view†, Journal of International Business Studies, 38, 2007, pp. 802-818. Kogut Bruce and Zander Udo, â€Å"Knowledge of the firm and the evolutionary theory of the multinational corporation†, Journal of International Business Studies, Fourth Quarter, 1993, 625-645, p. 625. Ibid. 25 26 244 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) mechanisms.MNCs are specialized in transfer of tacit knowledge27 that could not be distributed successfully through the market. 28 These authors have empirically proven that the less codifiable and the harder to teach is the technology, the more likely transfer will be done inside the firm. The new perspective of the firm argues that organizations have distinctive advantages in comparison to some institutional mechan isms such as market. These distinctive advantages are based on organizations’ particular capabilities for creating and sharing of knowledge, having in mind tacit knowledge, in particular.The research of knowledge-based and network-based theories provided the re-assessment of the role of the subsidiary, suggesting that it could be strategic in the MNC system. It is now largely accepted that knowledge, created and accumulated in the network of MNC’s organizational units, is a strategically important source of MNC competitive advantage. 29 MNCs have the possibility to access this stock of knowledge, but also to combine it in order to find some new ways of their use. But, there are many challenges for the MNC management concerning successful transfer of knowledge across units.Namely, there are authors that indicate that transfer of knowledge inside the 27 Tacit knowledge is too complex and could not be transferred through the market, so MNCs appear to be efficient vehicles for the transfer of this type of knowledge across the borders. Competences are idiosyncratic, specific, tacit, non–codified knowledge that is very difficult to transfer from one affiliate to another. Speaking of the knowledge transfer it is important to notice the difference between explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge.Explicit knowledge is objective and can be expressed in forms such as: data, scientific formulas, specific actions and manuals. Tacit knowledge is difficult to codify and formalize because it is embedded in individuals and is experiential and subjective. Tacit knowledge such as belief, perspective, mental models, ideas and ideals are embedded in people, while organizational knowledge is embedded in organizational processes, procedures, routines and structures. Since explicit knowledge could be easily transmitted it could also be easily imitated by competitors and because of that it is not likely to be a source of competitive advantage.In contrast, tacit know ledge is difficult to access from outside, it is so hard to imitate and because of that it is very important in the creation of distinctive competences. It is clear that tacit knowledge is hard to transmit and it could be done only with the exchange of key people and all the systems that support them (Nonaka Ikujiro, Toyama Ryoko and Nagata Akiya, â€Å"A Firm as a Knowledge-creating Entity: A New Perspective on the Theory of the Firm†, Industrial and Corporate Change, 9, 1, 2000, 1-20). Kogut Bruce and Zander Udo, â€Å"Knowledge of the firm and the evolutionary theory of the multinational corporation†, loc. cit.Bjorkman Ingmar, Barner-Rasmussen Wilhelm and Li Li, â€Å"Managing knowledge transfer in MNCs: the impact of headquarters control mechanisms†, Journal of International Business Studies, 35, 2004, p. 443. 28 29 245 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) organization is very difficult due to the ch aracteristics of knowledge itself, the specifics of the donor, the specifics of the receiver, and the nature of the relationship between them. 30 It has also been suggested that there are significant barriers to knowledge and innovation transfer because knowledge is embedded in social capital. 1 Affiliates develop long-term relationships with its external partnering organizations. In these relationships, organizations are deeply involved and develop their absorptive, problem-solving and innovative capacity. But, this capacity (knowledge) is developed inside a specific context that could be completely useless in a different context. In this way, the question of successful transfer is raised and further, competences of the management to coordinate and motivate knowledge-sharing are brought to front.Complex and close relationships that the affiliate has with its stakeholders could create competences and knowledge that could not be easily applied within a different business context. Kno wledge, developed by the affiliate, critically depends on the business context, and even on specific relationships. This feature is positively correlated with the ability of the affiliate to create new knowledge. For example, close and long-term cooperation with certain consumers or suppliers provides enlargement of the affiliate’s capacity to solve problems and to create new knowledge.But, the more the solutions are adequate for a specific context the more difficult they are to apply in the business context of other affiliates in the system. As a consequence, it is assumed that the technological embeddedness of the affiliate is positively correlated with the competence development, but also with the characteristics of the context. So, it could be concluded that there is a trade-off between embeddedness (which determines the market performance of the affiliate) and the possibilities of knowledge transfer to other organizational units of MNC (which determines the organizationa l performance of MNC affiliates).However, even though these theoretical considerations sound reasonable they have not been confirmed by the previous empirical research. The study of Andersson et al. 32 has shown that the affiliate embeddedness in the network of 30 These barriers are known as â€Å"corporate immune system† in Birkinshaw Julian and Ridderstrale Jonas, â€Å"Fighting the corporate immune system: a process study of subsidiary initiatives in multinational corporations†, International Business Review, 8, 1999, pp. 149–180.Zander Ivo and Solvell Orjan, â€Å"Cross–Border Innovation in the Multinational Corporation, A Research Agenda†, International Studies of Management Organization, 30, 2, 2000, pp. 44–67. Andersson Ulf, Forsgren Mats and Holm Ulf, â€Å"Subsidiary Embeddedness and Competence Development in MNCs – A Multi – level Analysisâ€Å" Organization Studies, 22, 6, 2001, pp. 1013–1034. 31 32 246 Pes alj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) business relationships is positively correlated with the competence development of MNC as a whole.This conclusion does not imply that all the relationships that an affiliate has with its partners are equally important and that affiliates should be equally embedded in all parts of the network. It means that only some relationships have these features, and they have to be recognized and developed. With regard to these challenges, there is a very important line of research that is focused on the ability of the subsidiary to act as a mediator between external and internal network of MNC.This research stream is especially focused on knowledge transfer within MNC, its determinants and effects on the performance. Studies investigate characteristics of knowledge transfers,33 characteristics of the sender and/or the receiver,34 the relationship between organizational design and knowledge transfers35 and the relationship between knowledge transfers and performances of the sender or receiver. 6 ORGANIZATIONAL MECHANISMS AND KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER IN MNCS Reviewing the knowledge-based approach to MNCs, authors Foss and Pedersen point out that even though it is a very popular and leading modern approach, in the theory of MNC there is still â€Å"a lack of adequate understanding of many of the causal mechanisms and contextual factors in relation between knowledge processes and organizational factors†. 7 Despite a great contribution of the knowledge-based theory to better understanding of MNC on the basis of investigation of importance, determinants and performances of knowledge transfer there are still some important aspects that are 33 34 35 36 Kogut Bruce and Zander Udo, â€Å"Knowledge of the firm and the evolutionary theory of the multinational corporation†, loc. cit. Gupta, Anil and Govindarajan, Vijay, â€Å"Knowledge Flows within Multinational Corporations†, Strategic Management Journal, 21, 2000, pp. 73–496. O’Donnell W. Sharon, â€Å"Managing Foreign Subsidiaries: Agents of Headquarters, or an Independent Network? †, Strategic Management Journal, 21, 2000, pp. 525–548. Mahnke Volker, Pedersen Torben and Venzin Markus, â€Å"Why do MNC subsidiaries engage in knowledge sharing with other subsidiaries and what are the implications for performance†, DRUID 10th Anniversary Summer Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, June 27–29, 2005, Internet: http://www. druid. dk/uploads/tx_picturedb/ds2005-1488. df 8/01/2008. Foss Nicolai and Pedersen Torben, â€Å"Organizing knowledge processes in the multinational corporation: an introduction†, Journal of International Business Studies, 35, 2004, pp. 340–349. 37 247 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) underdeveloped. More research is needed on issues of organizational control mechanisms that would give micro foundations to the knowledge-based theory of MNC.More attention needs to be devoted to some issues such as â€Å"provision of incentives, the monitoring of managements and employees, etc. ,†38 and how they may influence the core processes investigated within the knowledge-based theory of MNC – transferring and deploying of knowledge. In the most recent studies using knowledge-based approach of MNC, we could notice that these remarks of Foss and Pedersen are still valid in the present. In order to deal with these issues especially useful is the literature that applies the concept of differentiated MNC.This approach largely provides an empirically based insight into the organizational aspects of knowledge transfers between MNC units. Also, the approach to the research of organizational mechanisms that is based on the social capital theory has provided some very useful insight. To foster knowledge flows within MNC, the parent company has at its disposal tailoring and control mechanisms in order to provide that knowledge is shared among units and consequently that performance is increased. 9 The other relevant argument is revealed in the study of Bjorkman et al. 40 Namely, the process of competences development engages human resources that are nowadays the most valuable resource. Once created, transfer of knowledge that is tacit and the context is specific requires the assistance of the same human resources that participated in the process of creation. So, the subsidiary might face some trade-off between the engagement of resources in the process of competence creation and in the process of knowledge transfer to other units. Therefore, eadquarters need to apply some mechanisms to motivate affiliates to engage its resources in the process of knowledge outflows for the benefits of other units and MNC as a whole, since the same resources could be used in the process of competence development for its own benefits, leading to a better po sition in the MNC system. 41 38 39 Ibid. , p. 341. Rabbiosi Larissa, â€Å"The evolution of reverse knowledge transfer within multinational corporations†, Paper ID: A108, â€Å"The Capitalization of Knowledge: cognitive, economic, social cultural aspects† Turin, Italy, 18–21 May, 2005, Internet: http://www. riplehelix5. com/pdf/A108_THC5. pdf 11/1/2008. Bjorkman Ingmar, Barner-Rasmussen Wilhelm and Li Li, â€Å"Managing knowledge transfer in MNCs: the impact of headquarters control mechanisms†, Journal of International Business Studies, 35, 2004, pp. 443–455. Ibid. 40 41 248 Pesalj B. , Konkurentske prednosti multinacionalnih kompanija, MP 2, 2011 (str. 237–259) Mahnke et al. 42 contributed with a new perspective of the contributing subsidiary – a unit that shares knowledge with other parts of MNC, analyzing its motives to do so and effects on its performance.These authors investigated reasons

Erich Hartmann - World War II Ace - Luftwaffe

Erich Hartmann - World War II Ace - Luftwaffe Erich Hartmann - Early Life Career: Born April 19, 1922, Erich Hartmann was the son of Dr. Alfred and Elisabeth Hartmann. Though born in Weissach, Wà ¼rttemberg, Hartmann and his family moved to Changsha, China shortly thereafter due to the severe economic depression that struck Germany in the years after World War I. Residing in a house on the Xiang River, the Hartmanns lived a quiet life while Alfred established his medical practice. This existence came to an end in 1928 when the family was forced to flee back to Germany following the outbreak of the Chinese Civil War. Sent to school in Weil im Schà ¶nbuch, Erich later attended schools in Bà ¶blingen, Rottweil, and Korntal. Erich Hartmann - Learning to Fly: As a child, Hartmann was first exposed to flying by his mother who was one of Germanys first female glider pilots. Learning from Elisabeth, he received his glider pilots license in 1936. That same year, she opened a flying school Weil im Schà ¶nbuch with the support of the Nazi government. Though young, Hartmann served as one of the schools instructors. Three years later, he earned his pilots license and was permitted to fly powered aircraft. With the beginning of World War II, Hartmann entered the Luftwaffe. Commencing training on October 1, 1940, he initially received an assignment to the 10th Flying Regiment in Neukuhren. The following year saw him move through a series of flight and fighter schools. n March 1942, Hartmann arrived at Zerbst-Anhalt for training on the Messerschmitt Bf 109. On March 31, he violated regulations by performing aerobatics over the airfield. Sanctioned to confinement and fines, the incident taught him self-discipline. In a twist of fate, the confinement saved Hartmanns life when a comrade was killed flying a training mission in his aircraft. Graduating in August, he had built a reputation as a skilled marksman and was assigned to Fighter Supply Group, East in Upper Silesia. In October, Hartmann received new orders assigning him to Jagdgeschwader 52 in Maykop, Soviet Union. Arriving on the Eastern Front, he was placed in Major Hubertus von Bonins III./JG 52 and mentored by Oberfeldwebel Edmund Roßmann. Erich Hartmann - Becoming an Ace: Entering combat on October 14, Hartmann performed poorly and crashed his Bf 109 when it ran out of fuel. For this transgression, von Bonin made him work for three days with the ground crew. Resuming combat flying, Hartmann scored his first kill on November 5 when he downed an Ilyushin Il-2. He shot down an additional aircraft before the end of the year. Gaining in skill and learning from skilled compatriots such as Alfred Grislawski and Walter Krupinski, Hartmann became more successful in early 1943. By the end of April he had become an ace and his tally stood at 11. Repeatedly encouraged to get closer to enemy aircraft by Krupinski, Hartmann developed his philosophy of when he [the enemy] fills the entire windscreen you cant miss. Using this approach, Hartmann began rapidly increasing his tally as Soviet aircraft fell before his guns. In the fighting that occurred during the Battle of Kursk that summer, his total reached 50. By August 19, Hartmann had downed another 40 Soviet aircraft. On that date, Hartmann was aiding in supporting a flight of Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers when the Germans encountered a large formation of Soviet aircraft. In the resulting fight, Hartmanns aircraft was badly damaged by debris and he came down behind enemy lines. Quickly captured, he feigned internal injuries and was placed in a truck. Later in the day, during a Stuka attack, Hartmann jumped his guard and escaped. Moving west, he successfully reached German lines and returned to his unit. Erich Hartmann - The Black Devil: Resuming combat operations, Hartmann was awarded the Knights Cross on October 29 when his kill total numbered 148. This number increased to 159 by January 1 and the first two months of 1944 saw him shoot down another 50 Soviet planes. An aerial celebrity on the Eastern Front, Hartmann was known by his call sign Karaya 1 and the distinctive black tulip design that was painted around the engine cowling of his aircraft. Feared by the Russians, they gave the German pilot the sobriquet The Black Devil and avoided combat when his Bf 109 was spotted. In March 1944, Hartmann and several other aces were ordered to Hitlers Berghof in Berchtesgaden to receive awards. At this time, Hartmann was presented with the Oak Leaves to the Knights Cross. Returning to JG 52, Hartmann began engaging American aircraft in the skies over Romania. Clashing with a group of P-51 Mustangs on May 21 near Bucharest, he scored his first two American kills. Four more fell to his guns on June 1 near PloieÅŸti. Continuing to run up his tally, he reached 274 on August 17 to become the top-scorer of the war. On the 24th, Hartmann downed 11 aircraft to reach 301 victories. In the wake of this achievement, Reichsmarschall Hermann Gà ¶ring immediately grounded him rather than risk his death and a blow to Luftwaffe morale. Summoned to the Wolfs Lair in Rastenburg, Hartmann was given the Diamonds to his Knights Cross by Hitler as well as a ten-day leave. During this period, the Luftwaffes Inspector of Fighters, Adolf Galland, met with Hartmann and asked him to transfer to the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet program. Erich Hartmann - Final Actions: Though flattered, Hartmann declined this invitation as he preferred to stay with JG 52. Galland again approached him in March 1945 with the same offer and was again rebuffed. Slowly increasing his total through the winter and spring, Hartmann reached 350 on April 17. With the war winding down, he scored his 352nd and final victory on May 8. Finding two Soviet fighters performing aerobatics on the last day of the war, he attacked and downed one. He was prevented in claiming the other by the arrival of American P-51s. Returning to base, he directed his men to destroy their aircraft before moving west to surrender to the US 90th Infantry Division. Though he had surrendered to the Americans, the terms of the Yalta Conference dictated that units that had largely fought on the Eastern Front were to capitulate to the Soviets. As a result, Hartmann and his men were turned over to the Red Army. Erich Hartmann - Postwar: Entering Soviet custody, Hartmann was threatened and interrogated on several occasions as the Red Army attempted to compel him to join the newly formed East German Air Force. Resisting, he was charged with bogus war crimes which included killing civilians, bombing a bread factory, and destroying Soviet aircraft. Found guilty after a show trial, Hartmann was sentenced to twenty-five years of hard labor. Moved between work camps, he was finally released in 1955 with the aid of West German Chancellor Conrad Adenauer. Returning to Germany, he was among the last prisoners of war to be released by the Soviet Union. After recovering from his ordeal, he joined the West German Bundesluftwaffe. Given command of the services first all-jet squadron, Jagdgeschwader 71 Richthofen, Hartmann had the noses of their Canadair F-86 Sabres painted with his distinctive black tulip design. In the early 1960s, Hartmann vigorously opposed the Bundesluftwaffes purchase and adoption of the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter as he believed the aircraft to be unsafe. Overruled, his concerns proved true when over 100 German pilots were lost in F-104-related accidents. Increasingly unpopular with his superiors due to continued criticism of the aircraft, Hartmann was forced into early retirement in 1970 with the rank of colonel. Becoming a flight instructor in Bonn, Hartmann flew demonstration shows with Galland until 1974. Grounded in 1980 due to heart problems, he resumed flying three years later. Increasingly withdrawing from public life, Hartmann died on September 20, 1993 in Weil im Schà ¶nbuch. The highest scoring ace of all-time, Hartmann was never downed by enemy fire and never had a wingman killed. Selected Sources Aces of World War II: Erich HartmannLuftwaffe: Erich HartmannWorld War II: Erich Hartmann

Management skills and entrepreneurship Assignment

Management skills and entrepreneurship - Assignment Example Accordingly, exploration of hindrances in growth opportunities became a critical subject for most entrepreneurial researches (Shane and Venkataraman, 2000). In this context Shelton (2005) has proposed the concept of scale barriers to shed some light on the issues related to growth of new venture. Primarily, there are three kinds of resources that are necessary for growth of a firm, namely, financial resources, competitive position and management and organisational capability. Start-up firms are generally small in size and practically inexperienced in an industry. Consequently, they experience resource deficiencies in various functional areas due to small size and lack of sufficient knowledge of the industry. Shelton (2005) defined all these deficiencies as scale barriers which have significant negative impact on growth of new firms. Therefore, growth in new ventures can be illustrated as a process of conquering various scale barriers that develop as a result of liabilities such as newness and smallness. Inexperienced position and small size of start-up firms can be related to resource deficiencies, whose dimensions are not only limited to ignorance but also include lack of key strategic and organisational resources (Shepherd, Douglas and Shanley, 2000). The authors proposed a model where they suggested that an entrepreneur generally influences growth of a new venture on the basis of limited yet critical resources while the unavailable resources are listed as additional scale barriers. The entrepreneur needs to overcome these barriers to establish a mature and successful organisation (Shepherd, Douglas and Shanley, 2000). Author such as Singer (1995) presented a triad of causal constructs of success and failure of a new venture in this regard. However, it was gathered that most scholars primarily focused on managerial and environmental aspects of the triad and ignored the structural

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See the order instructions - Essay Example The overall gothic theme as presented in the movie is about a women Emily who receives a great deal of fortune as her father dies. Emily did not have the right to select the husband for herself because she was wealthy and needed to marry someone who is worth it. As a result, she murders the man she loved and ultimately presents a gothic element (Danticat). Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been by Joyce Carol Oates is binded by the suspence through myster as a gothic element. This is prevalent throughout the story leaving the readers as astonished. Finally, New York Day Woman? by Edwidge Danticat is amazingly written gothic story which is not just limited to suspense and mystery but it includes horrific species through realism as a pattern (Danticat). The common factors among all these three chosen texts for the paper were the degree of intensity of mystery, suspense and growth of the character as a complex one. The elements have rather been chosen to help the readers to enjoy the gothic genre of

Cynicism in Dorothy Allisons Short Story, This Is Our World :: Our World

Cynicism in Dorothy Allison's Short Story, This Is Our World Is â€Å"The world is meaner than we admit† (Allison 159)? In the short story, â€Å"This Is Our World,† Dorothy Allison asks this question, and her response startled me. I disagree with her way of thinking. Allison says that the world is a cruel, mean place. I think that the cruelty is balanced out with the goodness in the world. I was surprised to read her negative examples of how bad of a place it is that we live in and call â€Å"home.† This story was written with reference to events and occurrences that I have never experienced and things I have never seen. I found it difficult to relate to these events. The minister, the narrator, and her mother walked around the building where the narrator’s mother was to be baptized. Then they looked at the baptismal font. Allison states, â€Å"Watching baptisms in that tank was like watching movies at a drive-in† (155). I was glad to read that the narrator was not the one being baptized, because I feel she did not understand the true significance of the baptism ritual. She spoke of the Jesus painting as being, â€Å"rouged and pale and pout as Elvis Presley† (155). She was also trying not to giggle at the other little boys that were being baptized that day, â€Å"He looked as if he hoped someone would rescue him. It was too much for me. I began to giggle helplessly† (156). The narrator was too young to understand fully what it meant to be baptized. I believe that it is one of the reasons that Allison has such a negative attitude towards life. Maybe she did not agree or understand the meaning of a baptism, or religion as a whole. This could stem from a broken home life and no strong father figure. Although I have been fortunate enough to have a father and mother who love me a great deal, I still think the world can be cruel and mean. But meaner than we think? Every day we hear of some new tragedy that she speaks of, â€Å"the woman who drowned her children, the man who shot first the babies in her arms and then his wife, the teenage boys who led the three-year-old away along the train track, the homeless family recovering from frostbite with their eyes glazed and indifferent while the doctor scowled over their shoulders† (159), but every day we also hear of the good things.

Reflective Independent Learning Essay

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QCF641 Written questions Essay - 3720 Words

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